Perks of Being a Wallflower

â€Å"And all the books you’ve read have been read by other people. And all the songs you’ve loved have been heard by other people. And that girl that’s pretty to you is pretty to other people. And you know that if you looked at these facts when you were happy, you would feel great because you are describing â€Å"unity. † (p. 96). â€Å"The Perks of Being a Wallflower† written by Stephen Chbosky was published by MTV books and Pocket Books on February 1st, 1999. It’s classified as Young Adult, Contemporary Fiction and Epistolary novel. Epistolary novel is a novel written as a series of documents.Anne Frank is a type of Epistolary novel. Unlike Anne Frank, this one is written in form of letters, not a diary. In this novel you can see how â€Å"Charlie’s† life changes throughout his freshman year. How he deals with all the problems he faced, he faces, and he’ll face. In a unknown setting, the novel begins August 1991 with a teenage boy going by the alias â€Å"Charlie†, writing to an anonymous friend. â€Å"I just need to know that someone out there listens and understands and doesn't try to sleep with people even if they could have.I need to know that these people exist. † (p. 2). He heard someone at school talking about this anonymous friend, and he thought it would be someone nice to talk to. He specifically asks this friend to not try to find his true identity. Charlie has begun his freshman year while his brother is at Pennsylvania State University and his sister is at her senior year. We learn that his best friend, and only friend, committed suicide before he started writing these letters, leaving Charlie alone in high school.His favorite person in the world, his aunt, also died when he was 7 years old. He states repeatedly that something bad happened to her, but he doesn’t mention what, because it brings him to a bad place. After she died he doesn’t remember his lif e for a year, and he had been â€Å"different† ever since. As he starts freshman year, he is an outcast, until he meets Sam and Patrick. They introduce him to an electric, open-minded, hard-partying life, and soon Charlie starts enjoying his life. â€Å"And at that moment, I swear we were infinite. † (p. 39).Experiences that Charlie and his family and friends go through and the topics explored throughout the novel include suicide, difficult/abusive relationships, drug use/smoking, sex, abortion, child abuse/trauma, the struggles of homosexuality, and the awkward times of adolescence, such as first kisses and first girlfriends. Charlie is a troubled teenage boy. He is insecure and shy, because he just lost his best friend, and doesn’t know to deal with school alone. Since the death of his aunt, which he takes the blame, [â€Å"Despite everything my mom and doctor and dad have said to me about blame, I can't stop thinking what I know.And I know that my aunt Helen would still be alive today if she just bought me one present like everyone else. † (p. 92)], he has been different, sort of out of sync. He’s very sentimental, and he analyzes everything too much. Every tiny detail, is a big deal for him. He loves music and literature. His teacher gives him books to read and write bout, such as To Kill a Mocking Bird. His aunt molested him at the age of 7, but he never told anyone, because he loved so very much.

Psychology and Sensation Seeker

Take a look at the material on sensation seeking on page 286 (Ch. 11). Do you consider yourself a sensation seeker? Why or why not? What are the advantages and disadvantages of your level of sensation seeking? I am not a sensation seeker because I prefer peace and happiness. I am the type of person that likes to see the same people and have a routine to follow which I feel comfortable in. The advantages of my level of sensation seeking are that I am more likely to find peace and happiness compared to someone who has a higher level of sensation seeking.The disadvantages might be people calling me boring and not having as much fun as I should be having. How would you rate your own achievement motivation? Why? In what ways is this an advantage to you? In what ways is it a disadvantage? I would rate my own achievement motivation very high. I say this because I fit all of the descriptions mentioned in the book and I enjoy excelling in the things I do. When I have an easy task in front of me I find it boring but when I have a difficult task I tend to feel worried because I might do poorly.This is an advantage because I know it pushes me to do better in all of the things I do in my life. It is a disadvantage because my self-esteem can be lowered when I don’t do well on something and it might also affect those around me. What did you learn about yourself from reading about the trait theories of personality? I learned that I have the following traits: Openness, Conscientiousness and Agreeableness. I am opened to new ideas, self-disciplined, sociable, talkative and affectionate.I am a weird mix because I am opened to new ideas but I tend to like routines and being comfortable with my surroundings. At the same time I am sociable, talkative and affectionate which is kind of weird. To better explain I am a junior accountant at a commercial real estate company who sits in a cubicle all day but I am very outgoing and talkative like a salesperson. I always get complimen ts from people for being so outgoing while being an accountant which is a weird thing. What did you learn about yourself from reading the other theories of personality? List and explain at least three things. ) I now know I am aware of my actions which is something I never really thought about before. I also learned that I am a person who enjoys doing things for the thrill that comes from doing things instead of doing things for the outcome. I also learned that I am self-disciplined which is something I never paid attention to before either. These are great things I learned about myself from reading the theories of personality which I would of never thought of before.How will you use this material on personality to improve your relationships (personal and/or professional)? I will use this information in order to better understand myself and other in both my personal and professional life. I know no two people are alike and now I can manage to speak to them and treat them based on th eir personality so they feel comfortable. I will also use this material to better understand myself and my way of thinking in order to excel at the things I do.

The Economizing Problem

These Short Essays are partial fulfillment of Paper IE1001 of Part 1 of Certified Islamic Finance Professional (CIFP) [DRAFT V0. 4] INCEIFStudent Name: Mustafa AydemirStudent ID: 1200279 IE1001Assignment in Islamic Economics – Short Essay No 1 by Mustafa Aydemir – Version 0. 4. doc -1- Bismillahirrahmanirrahim The economizing problem – And its direct effect on the economy at large. A short essay from Islamic perspective by Mustafa Aydemir Human beings are greedy by nature and their needs are universally recognized as infinite.A simple prove for this statement is the wish of every person to live forever. The unlimited wants are the main reason that resources are considered insufficient or scarce. This is probably the strongest argument and a good justification to define an entire field of study to explain and solve the resulting economizing problem between unlimited needs versus limited resources. â€Å"Economics is the social science that studies the allocation of scarce resources to satisfy unlimited wants† (INCEIF Lecture Notes1), It is divided into Macro- and Microeconomics.The former is the field of economics that studies the behavior of the economy as a whole, and not just on a singular company, but entire industry sector and markets. Whereas, the latter focuses on supply and demand as well as other forces that determine the price levels seen in the economy. The previous section described the economizing problem, that is the relation between the scarcities or resources relative to ‘needs and wants’. People are self-interested economic agents that maximize their own utility by using goods and services (Williamson, 1985)2.In the capitalistic worldview, people are rational in their choices and would for example prefer a job paying 3000 USD salary over a job with a 1500 USD pay. The individual is looking after his own well-being, which is likely to increase by taking the higher income employment. 1 Title: Overview On Ec onomics; Class: Islamic Economics [IE1001]; Prof: Dr. Magda Ismail Abdel Mohsin; Institution: INCEIF; Date: 8/16/2006 # Of Pages: 28 2 The Economic Institutions Of Capitalism; Firms, Markets, Relational Contracting; Oliver E.Williamson; Yale University IE1001 Assignment in Islamic Economics – Short Essay No 1 by Mustafa Aydemir – Version 0. 4. doc -2- However, the well-being of all people needs to be guaranteed, which is well noted by theological, human and western researchers and recognized by all civilizations in the present and the past (Chapra, 1995)3. With the assumption that resources are limited, the well-being of the entire human race may remain just a dream if the scarce resources are not utilized efficiently and rightfully. In order to achieve this vision, societies develop effective strategies that can be considered as worldviews.For the sake of simplicity the (1) secular and the (2) religious worldviews are the only two that are subject to this essay. The s ecular worldview emphasis the importance of material aspects of well-being and disregards the religious aspect completely. The secularist argue that ‘maximum material’ well-being can be best realized if economic agents are given freedom to actualize their self-interest whatever it may be with regards to taste and preference and the guidance of God in any form is replaced by the help of human reasoning.Moreover, in this liberal view of secularism neither values nor government intervention can play a major role in the fair distribution of resources to achieve the well-being of all people. The liberal view has not succeeded and was overthrown nearly everywhere (Mirakhor, 2012)4. The need of people for social well-being is vital to the happiness of a human being. However, the secular worldview refers to market forces that would ensure social interests because competition will keep self-interest (that may lead to exaggerated greed) under control. 3 4 Chapra, M. Umer. (1995). Islam and the economic challenge.Leicester, U. K. : Islamic Foundation Abbas Mirakhor (2012).Lecture: Macroeconomic Policies & Islamic Finance. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: INCEIF IE1001 Assignment in Islamic Economics – Short Essay No 1 by Mustafa Aydemir – Version 0. 4. doc -3- In contrary to the secular or capitalist worldview stands the religious or spiritual worldview. It gives tribute and attention to both the spiritual as well as the material aspects of human wellbeing. In fact, the spiritual worldview does not necessarily reject logical reasoning in human improvement, individual freedom or self-interest (Chapra, 1995).This worldview, however, highlights that moral values and good governance are required as restraining factors for freedom and self-interest in the journey of a reaching a civilization where well-being in ensured to all people and to achieve social harmony and family integrity. The direct effects of the economizing problem to a nations wealth are manif old. Well after capitalism had been established in medieval Europe and the west, its consequences in terms of unemployment and mal-distribution of income and wealth became painfully evident (Haferkamp and Smelser, 1992).Market cycles are considered part of an economy and crisis are accepted as unavoidable. The market itself is the overarching governance frame that determines prices through supply and demand and overrules the social interest of human beings. It is like an autocratic dictator without mercy that supports the rich and the powerful and penalizes the poor and the needy people. Consequently, societies began overtime to assign an increasingly expansive role to the government to correct the shortcomings of capitalism (market capitalism) with billion or even trillion dollar bailout packages for so called ‘to-big-to-fail’ institutions.All paid with tax money. Simultaneously however a contrary view developed objecting to the governments’ involvement in the e conomy on efficiency ground. Anyhow, even after the massive global financial crisis in 2007/2008 the high net-worth individuals are better off (see 5 Haferkamp, H. , & Smelser, N. J. (Eds. ). (1992). Social change and modernity. Berkeley: University of California Press. IE1001 Assignment in Islamic Economics – Short Essay No 1 by Mustafa Aydemir – Version 0. 4. doc -4-Forbes Magazine6) and have more wealth than the middle class and low-income classes, likely due to cost cutting and austerity measures for companies and governments alike. The Islamic economic system is unique and provides a divine solution to the economizing problem this essay has elaborated thus far. It starts with the scarcity of resources that illustrates the issue quite clear. If we assume that resources are available in abundance (INCEIF Lecture Notes7) rather than limited, the paradigm shifts dramatically from strategies to accumulate wealth to strategies of wealth distribution.Wealth in Islam can be distributed by Zakah and Sadaqah but also by introducing a risk-sharing model into the financial system to replace it with interest (Askari, Iqbal, Krichene and Mirakhor, 2011)8. Islam recognizes differences in human potentials because each person is gifted with different skillsets and depth of abilities. Human beings are not identical is proof that no two individuals have identical capabilities. This differences will bring income and wealth inequalities in societies (Chapra, 1992)9. Furthermore, the self-interest and rational human aspects are fully endorsed but to a different end.Choices however are enhanced by ethical values and rules. Consider for example Islamic teachings where there is a sense of duty and obligation to follow rules of behavior and be in full compliance with them, often there are also some ends in view like Jannah (Paradise), the total well-being of society or approval and satisfaction of Allah. Even Allah’s love and mercy or fear of hell are motivato rs of a self-interested spiritual person. To the extent that ends is gaining strength over 6 7 The Worlds Billionaires List http://www. forbes. com/billionaires/ Retrieved on November 12, 2012Title: Overview On Economics; Class: Islamic Economics [IE1001]; Prof: Dr. Magda Ismail Abdel Mohsin; Institution: INCEIF; Date: 8/16/2006 # Of Pages: 28 8 Hossein Askari, Zamir Iqbal, Noureddine Krichene and Mirakhor (2011) Risk-sharing in Finance: The Islamic Finance Alternative; Singapore: John Wiley & Sons 9 Chapra M (1992). â€Å"Islam and the Economic Challenge†, The Islamic Foundation and International Institute of Islamic Thought, London and Herndon. IE1001 Assignment in Islamic Economics – Short Essay No 1 by Mustafa Aydemir – Version 0. 4. doc -5- the obligation and duty.Muslims may think of consequences in the hereafter more than over what was to be material well-being in this world. The position of Quran is in the first instance decoupling of actions from conseq uences, actions are done as a sense of duty to do what Allah teala and his beloved Messenger have ordered. At the same time, however, the Quran itself repeatedly emphasizes the desirable and undesirable consequences of actions (Lecture Notes Prof Mirakhor, 2012)10. In conclusion, Ibadah is the justification for rules. If one adores almighty Allah swt, one does what the creator orders.Hence, peoples unlimited wants are recognized and mentioned in the Quranic verse And ye love wealth with inordinate love: (al-Fajr 89:20)    and following hadith: Narrated Ibn ‘Abbas and Anas bin Malik: Allah’s Messenger said, â€Å"If a son of man had a valley full of gold, he would desire to have two. Nothing can fill his mouth except the earth (of the grave). Allah turns with mercy to him who turns to Him in repentance. †(Al-Bukhari and Muslim) That is why it may seem that Islamic economic system is probably the strongest alternative to greed and unfair markets that have led the world from crisis to crises. At least it is worth a try in the advanced economies. 10 Abbas Mirakhor (2012).Lecture: Macroeconomic Policies & Islamic Finance. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: INCEIF IE1001 Assignment in Islamic Economics – Short Essay No 1 by Mustafa Aydemir – Version 0. 4. doc -6

How The Web change learning over e-learning to Lifelong Learning Essay

How The Web change learning over e-learning to Lifelong Learning - Essay Example With Web 3.0 on the horizon, e-Learning 3.0, with its focus on content, is not very far away. The unprecedented development of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) from the early Eighties revolutionized many fields of work and activity, including learning and education which has undergone radical changes. The coming of the Internet and the World Wide Web (WWW) introduced the concept of â€Å"learning anytime, anywhere and anyhow† [1]. Students and teachers could be geographically dispersed in what is termed a virtual classroom. Distance education was prefixed with ‘online’ to give what is now known as e-Learning. The roots of the present-day web can be traced back to the concept of hypertext and hypermedia which goes back to 1945 when Vannevar Bush introduced the concept of hypertext in a system called ‘memex’. Bush visualized a system in which the documents could be linked in a non-linear manner modeled after the associative nature of the human mind.[33] The same objective was echoed by Ted Nelson in 1987 when he envisaged â€Å"†¦a fast linking electronic repository for the storage and publication of text, graphics and other digital information; permitting promiscuous linkage and windowing among all materials; with special features for alternative versions, historical backtrack and arbitrary collaging†¦Ã¢â‚¬ in his Xanadu system [34], Conklin who spoke of inter-documentary links [35] and Rada [36] who dreamt of connecting text across document boundaries. Hypertext and hypermedia gave the Web its interactivity and navigational manoeuvrability. â€Å"†¦concept of ‘hypertext’ is the base of all the web evolution.†[31] Conventional learning has been restricted to the physical classroom in which the teacher teaches students according to a prescribed course and syllabi. The genesis of e-Learning can be found in the initial web sites that were developed by

The ancient Egyptian culture Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

The ancient Egyptian culture - Research Paper Example The two deserts bordering Egypt on both sides is seemingly a drawback in the lush land near the river banks but the two land types were ideal to nurture one of the oldest civilizations in history. The Egyptians regarded the two land types as two different regions. The first type, the Kemet or â€Å"black land† (6), is where the ancient Egyptians grow crops. The land is literally black as a result of the flooding of the Nile leaving silt deposits on the soil. Favorable amounts of silt in soil improve water retention and aeration which are the best conditions for growing crops. The second type is the â€Å"red land† or the Desheret (6) which is the vast stretch of desert on both sides of the Kemet. Unlike the â€Å"black land†, the sand and heat of the Desheret was not beneficial for crops. The â€Å"red land† instead yielded precious stones, copper, gold and other minerals that are made into jewelry and tools. The desert was also the hunting grounds for the ancient Egyptians, rabbits, gazelles and antelopes were the usual prey of the hunters. The Nile River with its fertile soils and desert lands rich in minerals and precious stones provided the ideal environment and adequate resources for a society to thrive. The earliest Egyptian settlers were nomadic hunters who decided to live permanently on the banks of the Nile. The beginning of the Nile River civilization started between 3300 B.C. and 332 B.C. (5) prior to the establishment of a recognized government system. Evidences of the existence of the early occupants were unearthed in tombs. Polished semi-precious stones crafted into jewelry, pottery, clay sculptures and copper ornaments were obtained from the excavations and found to date back to the Pre-dynastic era of the Egyptian civilization. Prior to the beginning of Dynastic Egypt, Nile-dwellers are classified into two cultures with separate government systems. The Upper Egypt situated in the south of the Delta occupying the strip of land between the deserts. The Badarian and Naqadan culture flourished in Upper Egypt cultivating the land and crafting pottery (Hayes 14) that later became important archaeological artifacts. The state head in Upper Egypt dons the white hedget and believed to be the personification of their god. Lower Egypt’s culture was also influenced by Upper Egypt the government form however, is more bureaucratic and ruled by families. Rulers of Lower Egypt wear the red deshret. Pre-dynastic settlers in Egypt were growing wheat, barley and flax (Bell, Quie 40). The sowing season starts in October when the floods subside leaving the silt-rich soil ready for planting. Harvest season is from March to May just before June when the flooding occurs due to the overflowing of the Nile caused by heavy rains and the melting snow from Ethiopia. The inundation period starts from June and lasts until September (Deady 14). Animals were also domesticated during the Pre-dynastic period. Cattle, sheep , goats, pigs, and dogs (Trigger 17) were among the animals the ancient Egyptians tamed. Donkeys were also domesticated and later utilized as a means of transportation. At the onset of the Early Dynastic Period in ancient Egypt, the unification of the two ancient Egyptian regions also brought on the maximized use of the entire stretch of the Nile for transportation and irrigation systems. Ancient Egypt had its first dynasty under the first pharaoh Narmer or Menes. Egypt became the largest nation under one ruler

History of Graphic Design Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

History of Graphic Design - Essay Example In fact, in a way the artists in the 20th century happened to be way less burdened by utilitarian expectations (Lupton 1). Therefore, the graphic designers in the 20th century were as prone to tempering their creativity with an inclination for providing universal solutions, as the artists before them. The way they differed from them was in the sense that they happened to live in an age and time, that surpassed any other age in terms of a rapid and mass proliferation of new ideas, influences and ways of doing things. The graphic designers in 20th century happened to be denizens of a world that was rapidly changing. Artists, as individuals affiliated to other vocations had to contend with and make sense of an array of social, cultural, political and economic influences (Heller & Chwast 169). An array of social events and trends like an enhanced participation of women in the Western social and economic life, a rising working class, rapid industrialization and advent of technologies of mass production, and extensive urbanization impacted artists with an accentuated sense of novelty. The proliferation of a scientific mindset and way of life did make the 20th century graphic designers grasp and appreciate the linearity imminent in mathematical forms. The 20th century graphic designers lived in an era where a sense of disillusionment engendered by the Wars was giving way to rapid progress made possible by science and technology. In fact, the versatility, variety and variation marking the 20th century is amply illustrated by the host of art movements it initiated and encouraged like, Arts & Crafts movement, Art Nouveau, Futurism, Bauhaus, Art Deco, Dada, etc (Heller & Chwast 12). The 20th century graphic designers owed allegiance to a salubrious mix of artistic, corporate and political motivations. One big factor that encouraged them to do so was that for the first time in the history of art, the artists did have access to the means,

Managing Organizational Strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4250 words

Managing Organizational Strategy - Essay Example The company has been in operation since its establishment in the year 1911 and has had its 30% shares owned by the Thornton family. The company’s products mostly include chocolates, toffee and fudge, though it also deals in candies among other stuff (Smith, 2001). It has been committed to delivering quality products. It is led by Peter Burdon as the chief executive and boosts of at least 500 retail shops in over 568 countries across the globe. Part A: Strategic Position of Thornton External Environment: PESTLE Analysis Quite involved is the external environment of Thorntons Company which is associated with a number of activities. Its external business environment has suppliers, customers, competitors, as well as a number of regulations which are of direct influence to its business operations. The company has made efforts to ascertain that its ultimate role and purpose as regards its immediate environment enable it understand its position and place in the entire chocolate indus try (Treanor, 2000). The company has therefore acquired a stable position in its business environment alongside suiting its capabilities and resources. The company has also been able to align itself towards different needs form various governments. The same has been its case with regulations and legislations in its various markets in different countries within which it operates. In terms of economy, Thorntons Company has been stably placed in the market and it has been seen to be favored by trends in interest rates. Its employment is also well supplied and viable as far as its business operations are concerned along with reliable income distribution which is pinned on the same (Lee, 2001). The company has also been stable in it market amid inflations and recessions which have of late struck the entire global economy. In addition, Thorntons Company has been in the forefront in regard to corporate social responsibility. This is depicted as having positioned it well in terms of its rel ationship with the communities within which it does operate. Jenkins (2001) observes that this has also been the trend with people’s eating habits which have been seen to incline more and more to Thorntons Company products even in foreign markets. The company has therefore been able to influence a magnitude in its business environment. It has also adopted technological approaches such as in its products’ preservation and packaging. Its link to suppliers has also been electronically enabled hence efficiency (Cyert and Williams, 1993). The company also embraced internet sales and marketing of its products, as well as branding of the same. This has made easy and enhanced its operations especially following the fact that it is operating within a competitive market alongside helping in its management of data and information. Putting basis on environment and natural resources conservation, Thorntons Company has also been an advocate for green consumerism as have been identif ied with its operations and business activities (Edelman and Suchman, 1997). It has embraced recycling as well as environment sound and friendly packaging systems alongside energy efficient systems in its operations. Legally, the company has also been able to adhere to stipulated legislation requirements in various countries it has business in. this is evident in terms of health and safety requirements, in its planning systems and employment requirements. Strategy Capability Analyses: Using Value Chain to

Econ. 2010 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Econ. 2010 - Essay Example A higher price, however, will put them at a disadvantage because it will lessen their purchasing power, as a result they will demand less of that good. This decision will cause a change in demand as they will try to look for some alternatives or substitutes for that product. This is also known as the substitution effect. A seller may see the situation differently. A lower price is not as encouraging as a higher price. This means that the sellers are more willing to make their goods available in the market at higher prices because this means more profit. The shortage in the supply of grain had caused the prices to go up and the additional supply due to the better weather caused the prices to fall. This is a pricing mechanism in a purely competitive product market. Shortage is when the quantity demanded is greater than quantity supplied resulting to a higher selling price while surplus happens because quantity supplied exceeded what the market demanded. When neither shortage nor surplu s exists, the price and quantity supplied and demanded are at equilibrium. The equilibrium price and quantity is where selling and buying decision are synchronized or coordinated as a rationing function of prices (McConnell and Brue, p.58).

Managerial Accounting Practices Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

Managerial Accounting Practices - Essay Example ng on the other side provide information that is of pivotal importance for management to make day to day decisions as well as to set their long term strategy. When financial accounting provides standardized reports to external stakeholders, management accounting enables accountants to provide information for each and every level of management, from section supervisor to department heads. â€Å"Management accounting is concerned with the provisions and use of accounting information to managers within organizations, to provide them with the basis in making informed business decisions that would allow them to be better equipped in their management and control functions (wikipedia, 2007)†. The purpose of managerial accounting is to provide management with the information that holds key importance in strategic planning, directing and motivating employees and evaluating and controlling organizational performance. It provides basis for decision making for future activities. Reports are prepared for each and every segment of department so that the department heads and section managers may know exactly about their department’s performance and can reward or take controlling measures for their employees. Managerial accounting provides data to enable management of making budgets which are a part of their planning process. Budgets help management know exactly of their current state of resources and their future use in various activities from day to day operations to expansion projects. Daily sales report generated by management accountants or daily production reports help management analyze the efficiency of various department. Comparisons between the standard and the actual help management to know about the current and required status of their business activities and counter measures can be taken if found deviating from standards. Managerial accounting’s ability to provide basis for controlling measures lays ground for key performance measures for an organization.

Literary discourses in the modern literary theory Essay

Literary discourses in the modern literary theory - Essay Example It has been maintained that "the reading of literary narratives is best characterized as point driven-a process in which the reader considers what the narrator is getting at [and] that point-driven reading involves a sense of an author seeking to make a point." (Miall, 339) One of the most effective strategies of attaining the literary meaning of piece is reading for point which includes different components such as coherence, attention to surface features, and the transactional stance. It is possible and largely illumining to engage in a literary activity of reading for point in order to arrive at the meaning of the literary creations. The significance of the structural elements in the creation of a cohesive and coherent narrative discourse in fiction is often emphasised. This paper focuses on a profound and reflective analysis of the structural elements in Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen with close reference to the novel, which make the piece a cohesive and coherent narrative di scourse. Though different in objective and function, structure and meaning are interconnected and it is the relation between the two which make a literary discourse meaningful. The important relation between structure and meaning in literary discourse needs to be clearly comprehended. ... very work possesses a structure, which is the articulation of elements derived from the different categories of literary discourses; and this structure is at the locus of the meaning." (Todorov et al., 141) An evaluation of the relation between structure and meaning in literary works through the years confirms the significance of readings in literary discourse which focus on these elements. Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen provides one of the best illustrations of the pertinent relation between structure and meaning in literary discourse. It is obvious that the structural elements in the novel make it a cohesive and coherent narrative discourse and an analysis of the novel's narrative structure substantiates the point. The structural elements include narrative structure as well as constituents and linkage. In Pride and Prejudice, the best known and probablythebest liked novel by Austen, the narrative structure, the relation among story, plot, structure, system, rules, the cohesion, coherence and congruence in story etc contribute to the structural elements, which ultimately bring about the meaning to the novel. An analysis of the narrative structure of the novel is important and the sociolinguist Labov's Model of Natural Narrative, which is a prolific model of analysis in stylistics, provides with an effective tool in this regard. As Labov's model focuses on the everyday discourse practices of actual speakers in actual social circumstances, it has a great validity in literary analyses. Labov made use of the various stories by informers from many diverse backgrounds and "isolates the core, recurrent features that underpin a fully formed natural narrative. Six key categories are rendered down from this body of data." (Simpson, 114) According to the model, there are

Amazon.com - transfer pricing, taxation and the role of corporate Research Paper

Amazon.com - transfer pricing, taxation and the role of corporate social responsibility - Research Paper Example tion of these issues are described below Transfer Pricing and taxation Issues for Amazon.com Simply the transfer pricing is the price that is set for the intercompany transactions. Transfer pricing is used when the divisions of an organization need to charge other divisions of the same organizations for the goods and services provide to them. For example as in the case of Amazon.com, it is mentioned earlier that Amazon is operating the variety of departments and websites in many countries. Transfer pricing in this might possible, as a department of Amazon in United Kingdom deals in a component in United Kingdom. The same component is also required by a costumer in China. The transfer of this component form the department in US to department in china will be valued at internal price and will be referred as transfer price. In the context of transfer pricing these some factors can effect on the operations of Amazon.com. Transfer prices are particularly appropriate for profit centers bec ause if one profit center work for another, the size of the transfer price will affect the costs of one profit center and revenue to other. In the case of Amazon, each department has its own products and activities and every department in different counties is responsible to maintain its profit level. So in relation to the prospective of transfer pricing each department can try to work in their own interested segments to increase their profits. Decisions might be taken by a department manager in the best interest of his own part of business, and it may possible that this decision may affect against the interests of other departments. The profit center managers for Amazon tend to put their own profit performance above everything else. Since the profit center performance is measured according... The intention of this study is Amazon.com as a largest cyber selling company in modern cyber environment. Amazon.com started their business by selling their first book in 1995. At that time the main aim of amazon is based on a dream to develop a new trend in e-commerce. After the great success of this business Amazon now have selling every kind of products and have many sites those are serving efficiently in seven countries. The working of Amazon is an art not a science. They are dealing in lots of products. The main art of capturing the cyber market is multi-level e-commerce strategy. Due to this strategy, anyone sell almost anything using the platform of Amazon.com. The another main key factor for the success of Amazon.com is their efficient data based system which has also ranked in the top three world largest Linux data base system in 2005. The purpose of this report is to clear these mentioned issues can affect the Amazon’s performance in material manner. On the other han d, in current modern environment the value of cyber markets is increasing day by day. So it is much necessary for Amazon.com to control the all negative aspects of mentioned factors to win the race. There is also a strong need to control the problems that is stated is the Amazon’s Annual report. In short, by taking account of all these issues Amazon.com can perform in more efficient manner and easily capture the cyber market share in near future.

Introduction to working with children Essay Example for Free

Introduction to working with children Essay There are three different provisions that provide care and education to children. Upton Infant School is a statutory provision; they are funded by the government. Upton Infant School educates and cares for children from 4 years to 7 years of age. They follow the National Curriculum, and the EYFS. They support and work with the children and family by observing the children, and producing written or verbal feedback to the parents; this can be done by holding parent evenings. They are also supporting the children and parents by having fully trained SEN staff in the setting; so they help the children who require additional support. (Upton Infants School, 2012) The DEBRA charity is an organisation which supports and helps to find a cure to heal or help the children and families that are suffering from a generic skin blistering condition. This condition is called Epidermolysis Bullosa (EB). This is a voluntary organisation; this is funded by the public. They support and help children of all ages from birth. They provide emotional and physical support for families coping with EB. (DEBRA, 2008-2012) Private provisions are organisations that make profits from their services. Buckholme Towers in Parkstone; is an independent day school and nursery, which cares for both boys and girls from 3 to 12 years of age. They provide classes for individual learning. The staff quickly gets to know pupils so that their strengths and talents and be enhanced, and their weaknesses are developed upon. They provide a supportive environment this makes the children feel secure and ready for challenges of school life. They support families that have children with; Emotional Needs, ADHD, Dyslexia, Asthma and Serious Allergy’s. (Poole Family Information Service, 2012) There are various legislations in the UK that supports working with children, these are:- Health And Safety At Work Act 1974 Children’s Act 1989 Children’s Act 2004 Children’s Act 2006 Equality Act 2010 United Convention On The Rights Of The Child 1989 Data Protection Act 1998 The Children’s Act 1989 came into force in October 1990. It aims to help children in every situation; at home, at day-care, or in full time care. Some of the principles are that the welfare of the child is paramount and every child has the right to be free from neglect and abuse, every child should be brought up by their parents, if the child is in need, help and guidance should be provided. Both parents and professionals should consult the child when decision making. (Beaver, et al, 2008) Children’s Act 2004 promotes the five outcomes for the Every Child Matters (2003) legislation for every child; this was created because some of the points in 1989 were not being done. These five points are; 1. Be healthy 2. Stay safe 3. Enjoy and achieve 4. Make a positive contribution 5. Achieve economic well-being (Beaver, et al, 2008) The needs of the child and family are central in the Children’s Act 2006. Local authorities must improve the outcomes for children less than 5 years of age. This was created to focus on the children in question and their families. This is where the EYFS came into practice. This was introduced to support the delivery of quality of education and care in the early years. This Act also entitles parents to get the information they need. (Beaver, et al, 2008) The United Convention On the Rights Of The Child came into force in 1989. This Act contains 54 articles. All the articles were put into place to ensure every child enjoys health and education; every child should be within a caring family and have the right of survival. Every child should be protected from exploitation and abuse at all times and should have the freedom to have their voice and opinions taken into account on significant issues. (Beaver, et al, 2008) The Data Protection Act was put into place in 1998, to protect Information of individuals as this is confidential. Other than the care worker, the information can only be shared between the guardian or parent and the child in question. It is very important that you maintain confidentiality when working with children. This is important because it protect the child in question and the family. (Legislation, 2012) Principles and values are very important when working with children. Principles are a professional rule of action of conduct. Values are beliefs and ideas that are shared between groups of people that are from the same culture. This is important because it will give you an understanding of what is good or desirable and what is not. (Tassoni, et al, 2007) Through positive relations the children learn to be strong and to be independent. According in the EYFS (2012) every child is a unique child; they can have a strong character, confident and are self-assured. Enabling environments are essential in helping the children develop and learn. Every child learns and develops in a different way, every child should be treated equally, and their needs to be taken into account. The education and care of all the children in early year’s provision, including children with special educational needs and disabilities, are covered by this framework. Without a unique child, positive relationships and enabling environment’s there would not be any learning and development. The CWDC principles are to reinforce that the welfare of the child and young person is paramount. The safeguarding, learning and development is reflected in practice and service provision. Practitioners work closely with parents as they are very important in their child’s upbringing, recognising they are the children’s most important careers and educators. The values of CWDC are that every child’s individuality is valued and respected and celebrated. Also the children’s personal and physical safety is safeguarded, whilst allowing for risk and challenge as appropriate to the capabilities of the child. Self-esteem is very important to every child’s development. Also confidentiality and agreements about confidential information are respected as appropriate unless a child’s protection and well-being are at stake. Best practice requires a continuous search improvement and self-awareness of how workers are perceived by others. (Children’s Workforce Development Council, 2012). Inclusion and diversity is very important in respecting and valuing each child at a place setting. If this is done correctly it should build the child’s confidence and improve their concentration. This will also remove learning barriers; whether this is emotional or learning where a child may need extra support. (Beaver, et al, 2008) Everyone is different and entitled to their own opinions this means everyone should get treated equally, as they are a unique child, this complies with the EYFS curriculum (Moylett.et al. 2012) According to article.10 UNCRC states that every child has the rights to be able to be heard, valued and listened to. ‘The United Nations Convention On The Rights Of The Child, article 12, says that we must listen to the child’s view and take those views into account in any planning that effects the child’ (Fajerman,2001:12). Both `the children and the staff are benefitting by taking into account the views and the opinions of the child. This builds upon the child’s self-esteem, the children become independent, creative learners, this also makes them aware they have rights and that they do matter. This benefits the staff because they gain an increased awareness of children’s needs, rights and abilities. Also the parents will benefit from this by them feeling involved with their children’s development and their contribution to the setting. (Fajerman, 2001) An example of the place settings giving the children the freedom to express themselves and have their own opinions is at tea time or snack time; this enables them to be able to decide what they want to eat from a plate of food. This way the children will eat what they like and feel valued. According to an early years consultant Margret Collins (2006) children with low self-esteem are timid and are easily bullied. They struggle to take up challenges, and rarely reach their full potential, on some cases people with low self-esteem look at themselves as a failure! On the other hand children with high self-esteem embrace new challenges and see themselves as a success. Children with high self-esteem do usually have an excellent relationship with their teachers as they receive praise. From September 2008, The EYFS emphasis that every person who cares for the children, e.g. child minders and the EYFS practitioners under the age of five have to show the evidence of ‘Look, Listen, and Note’. This shows what development stage the children are at and what the children like doing, also this gives the practitioner a clear understanding of what the child can do or not and if the child needs extra support or not. By doing this you are treating the children like individuals. (Renouf, 2008). People have different opinions this gives them a sense of themselves and others around them. They can also see how individual everyone is. (Graham, 2002). The children will learn that other people have different opinions and feelings; this enables them to be sensitive to others. They will learn that every child believes and their personal views on things can vary, every child has the right to, and need to be treated with respect. Encouraging children to talk about their opinions and their feelings is important because this will build greater relationships with the child and you will be able to understand and help that child more. It is also important for the child to express what they like or dislike doing, and why. (Graham, 2002) There are many professional skills that will support you when working with children. Some of the professional skills are being an effective practitioner: this covers everything from being empathetic and sensitive to having effective communication skills, Being professional: this includes skills such as being reliable and an anti-bias approach, and ensuring you know your roles and responsibility; this involves putting the needs and rights of the child and the family first. (Beaver, et al.2008) Professional standards are essential in working with children; this covers all the professional standards that are needed to be an affective practitioner. Time keeping; is essential because this reflects well on you. Regular attendance is an individual responsibility; you also need to make sure you have everything with you to get the best out of the day. Appropriate dress code; this is important as this will show you have self-respect and that you value the children by not wearing anything inappropriate. It is very important that everyone in each setting understand the different ways of communicating with individual children’s needs. (Beaver, et al, 2008) It is important that everyone smells fresh, and they need to ensure they regularly wash their hands during the course of the day. Smoking is not allowed in public areas, due to a new law that has been recently created. Workers who choose to smoke should do this by going off site, and out of sight of parents and the children. (Beaver, et al, 2008) It is also a good idea to take in hoody or spare clothing so that you do not smell of smoke when you go back. You could also chew on gum, but remember to get rid of it before you go back to the children. All of this is being an effective role model. Study skills are important to being an effective practitioner. Basic needs are the most important one of them all. Without fulfilling your personal needs you will not be able to get the most from your experience and learn properly. Even looking at things like your health and mental health is important, as if you are ill, you are unable to learn to the best of your abilities and get the most from your day. (Northedge, 2005) Motivation is needed in childcare; this is what gets you through the days. Self-motivation comes from deep within, only you can motivate yourself, someone else can only inspire you to do something. By setting yourself little goals, you are able to achieve big goals. (Beaver, et al, 2008) Time management is also important, and this will need to be developed, you need to be able to manage your home life with your college life-try to keep these separate. You need to make sure you are realistic with your time scales to do something, and to be able to do them to your best abilities. (Beaver, et al, 2008) Note taking is important in studying as you will not be able to remember everything that you have learnt over the course of the day. (Beaver, et al, 2008) Planning is essential in childcare, without planning nothing will run smoothly and the days will be hectic. It is also important to plan your assignments this will help you complete it to the deadline. There are many things that learning environments provide to help their students achieve. There things such as learner support, they will help you to improve your work to a higher standard, they provide all sorts of help with your assignments they help you to plan them, they can proof read and check for spellings, and they can help you with referencing. (Beaver, et al, 2008) In childcare it is very important to develop and maintain appropriate relationships with the children, parents and other professionals. A practitioner’s role is to behave in a professional manner. (Tassoni, et al, 2007) Bowlby attachment theory, helps understand relationships, he understands the relationships between; children and carers, and parents and EYP. EYP’s now understand that there will be some children that need a little extra time to feel secure in the setting. This benefits the child because they become more independent and confident. EYP work in partnership with parents, and they should never undermine the relationship between the parent and child. By having a good relationship between the parent and EYP, will benefit the child, this will meet the child’s needs more effectively as the parent has the most knowledge of their child. (Tassoni, et al, 2007) By keeping the family informed about their child performance and any injury or discomfort will build trust. Building and maintaining relationships between colleagues, is essential. This can be done by sharing responsibility and duties equally. (Tassoni, et al, 2007) It is also important to share the information about the child you are about to work with, with the appropriate people. This also needs to be kept updated, by all the members that are working with that child. If there are any frictions between colleagues, the line manager will need to be contacted to help sort out such issues. (Tassoni, et al, 2007) Consistency is the key point in working with children, as you are a role model for children. The information the child receives from adults should be the same, this can have a negative effect on the children, as they pick up things like consistency and tension between parents, EYP, Colleagues and the children. (Tassoni, et al, 2007) Some children may need more than one organisation to help and support them and their families for any additional support. This is called multi-agency team. This consists of various professional that join their skills to help the children to the best of their abilities. It is a practical mechanism to deliver the integrated working required of public services by Every Child Matters, published in 2003, and by The Children Act 2004. (Beaver, et al, 2008) Multi-agency teams benefit the children because they receive tailor-made support for their needs. Some of the benefits of this is easier and quicker access to services and expertise, and reduced needs for specialist services. (Beaver, et al, 2008) Parents are also part of the multi-agency team, and their choices should also be respected and valued. E.g. parents may choose to discuss the situation to other professionals; this is their decision. (Beaver, et al, 2008) It is very unprofessional to discuss another child’s situation with other parents. Some parents find it very daunting for professionals to have contact with them on a daily basis. (Beaver, et al, 2008) Characterises of working with other colleagues and professionals in a multi-agency team are cooperation, this encourages the children to learn to work well with each other. Every team member needs to be consistent this is to ensure that everyone has the same approach of caring for children and working with their family. All members of the team should encourage, praise, stimulate, and support one another. Every member should share their ideas and aims and should feel respected; they should also feel a sense of belong. Every team member needs to be efficient, so all the skills of each individual can be used to the best of their ability. The responsibilities should be shared between every member in the multi-agency team. Workers need to be willing to learn and develop new ways of learning and thinking, and to balance out their weakness and strengths between them. It is also important you remain confidential within a multi-agency team, this shows that you respect your role and the child; you will also be complying with the Data Protection Act. (Beaver, et al, 2008) Common Assessment Framework (CAF) is a process to make sure that children needs are met in the most efficient and pro-active way. This is also a key component in the ‘Every Child Matters-change for children’ program. The CAF aim is to ensure every child receives the universal to which they are entitled and the additional services they need at the earliest opportunity. (Children’s Workforce Development Council 2008) Child-Centred approach is where the children get the freedom to experience, think, question, and research for their own answers. Nursery practitioners get to see how play develops between the children, and not telling them what to do. This enhances the children’s communication skills. This is the complete opposite of Adult-Led; this is where the adult’s initiates play. (Beaver, et al, 2008) The benefits of a Child-Centred approach are that the children get fully involved in activities and are proud of what they can achieve by themselves. They can actively explore the environment and enjoy playing with others. (Beaver, et al, 2008) Although some children find this situation awkward, as they believe the teacher should be in control, whereas others believe they are fully responsible for their play. (Beaver, et al, 2008) There can be issues with the parents too, as they believe children should not learn through playing they prefer their children to learn through literacy and numeracy skills. (Beaver, et al, 2008) Child-Centred approach links to the EYFS because every child is given the opportunity to choose what they want, this encourages every child to be unique. (Beaver, et al, 2008) The practitioners and teachers work in partnership to create a positive relationship and create and enabling environment for the children. The ‘Look, Listen and Note’ observation links to the adult led approach because you can have a better opportunity for observation this way. (Beaver, et al, 2008) The Reggio Emilia approach supports the child-centred approach; an approach based on children’s ideas, thoughts and observations they have gathered through the environment. This was founded by Loris Malaguzzi. (Beaver, et al, 2008) Reggio Emilia believed that the environment, in which the children learn, should be considered as a third teacher. (Wenex Technologies, 2006) Some of the characteristics of the Reggio Emilia approach are that the teachers work in pairs this is called ‘co-teaching’. ‘There is no staff structure, i.e. no head teacher; and staff such as cooks and assistants are regarded as equal with teachers.’ (Beaver, et al, 2008:251) ‘Teachers do plan and make preparations, but there is not a strict curriculum or timetable. Teaching and learning is allowed to evolve and unfold at the pace of the children and follows the interests they develop along the way’ (Beaver, et al, 2008:252) There is four main areas that are Important within your role, limits and boundaries these are; Health and Safety, managing children’s behaviour, child protection and confidentiality. (Tassoni, et al, 2007) It is everyone’s responsibility to ensure the child’s safety. It varies from a basic level by doing little things such as; shutting doors and gates behind you, to a more extreme level; what to do when there is a fire alarm. You also need to consider other aspects of physical safety; this includes things such as one of the children you are with has an accident or the child is unsafe. You will also need to follow policies on personal hygiene this could be simple things such as; wearing a uniform, tying your hair back, and using the supplied resources. (Tassoni, et al, 2007) It is essential to follow the settings policies and procedures, and the policies on hygiene. (Tassoni, et al, 2007) By following the policies and procedures you are reducing the risk of being accused of something such as neglectful behaviour or being in an abusive situation, it also ensures that everyone’s rights and responsibilities are respected, this also shows that the setting is running smoothly and everyone is doing what is expected of them. Having written policies is a requirement of OFSTED. (Tassoni, et al, 2007) It is very important to be aware of how different settings deal with managing children’s behaviour and where it is appropriate to intervene or when not to. (Tassoni, et al, 2007) Also it is important to observe how other professionals deal with the situation. Child protection is very important this will give you the knowledge of how to follow the correct policies to protect children from harm, and abuse. This is to ensure the child id receiving similar messages, so they can feel secure. (Tassoni, et al, 2007) Some children may tell practitioners things that are a cause of concern, this information should be immediately passed onto the appropriate people and no one else. Confidentiality is very important in -settings, as this protects the child and the families. (Tassoni, et al, 2007)

Analysis of Child Observation Research

Analysis of Child Observation Research Introduction and Background Information of the Children Our school encourages children to learn through play and experiences that are holistically, creative, and technologically. Teachers are believed to have the potential to help children to stimulate their development to the fullest with appropriate resources and environment. Children will co-construct their knowledge, bringing in their own identities and strengths can be nurtured to be self-directed and capable learners. These are some information about the children: Observation 1 Ann is three years old. She is staying with her parents. Her mother is from America while her father is from United Kingdom. The family enjoys going to the park. Observation 2 Kate is two years old. She is Singaporean and has been attending school since she was an infant. She is the only child in the family. Observation 3 John is two years old. He stays with his mother who is a Chinese and his father who is an Indian. John is a cheerful boy and likes to take the bus. Rogoff three lenses of approach (Fleer, Jane Hardy, 2007) were used on the analysis on each of the observations and will be expanding further with various theories and pedagogies. Analysis of Observation 1 Community-Institutional Lens Ann had just come back from her holidays in Mexico. She had been sharing with me about the garden at the grandparent’s house at Mexico. Thus, Ann may have involved in watering the plants with her grandparents. In a study by Robbins Jane (2006), it is mentioned that interactions with grandchildren is not just enjoying their moments together, but it is also seen as a key to gain knowledge about their natural, physical and technological world that exist or created within themselves. Families who support children’s learning and studies have acknowledged that the learning happens between home and school benefitted the child and their families (Robbins, 2012). From the observations, it has shown that learning has occurred between school and home. Appetizing From the observations, Ann had brought her knowledge back to school. She wanted to water the plants when she saw the watering can at the sink. Time was given to her to be engaged in filling up water and watering the plants along the classroom. The school environment has brought in incidental science. In my context, we have field and plants around the school to further enhance the school atmosphere. The rich green space has contributed to the incidental science which brought in nature more explicitly (Fleer, Gomes March, 2014). Interpersonal Lens In this observation, the nature of the interactions and interpersonal relationships is between child and adult. Because of what Ann saw what Miss Jess is doing, Miss Jess provided her the opportunity in science and technology. While learning has occurred when there are interactions, it has also shown that the thinking level is moving from intermental to intramental as the children progressively internalise, reflect on and transform their understanding (Robbins Jane, 2006). To improve the global environment in school and for us, taking action is needed (Mackey, 2012). Through observing what Miss Jess was doing, Ann felt that she should play a part in contributing to the environment. It is also reminded that when children’s rights are honoured, they take on the responsibility to improve conditions to shape their lives and as well as others (Mackey, 2012). Personal Lens Ann was able to relate to her previous experiences she had in watering plants at her grandparents’ place at Mexico. Vygotsky argued that children’s experiences set the foundation for higher cognitive thinking when children develop every day or basic concepts (Fleer et al., 2007). Watering the plants may have occurred at her grandparents’ place have led to Ann’s understanding that plants need water because they are thirsty. Ann was actively involved in the experiences. She took the responsibility of the need to water plants. Mawson (as cited in Robbins, 2012) reasoned that children do bring in prior knowledge of technological knowledge and understand and this does not have to be recognised or facilitated by teachers. Mawson also advised that while educators have to identify children’s real interest, educators also must have enough knowledge to support children’s interest effectively (Robbins, 2012). From the observation, Ann has shown strong interest in gardening and she has brought in her prior knowledge about watering the plants in school. Analysis of Observation 2 Community-Institutional Lens In this context, the children were given sufficient time to engage in sustained shared activity. Kate was given time to use spoon to scoop the ice to using pouring ice using the bucket. This relates to the school’s culture where children construct their knowledge, and they are competent and capable learner. The school also encourages children to have the resources for children to explore. According to Bronfenbrenner’s ecological perspective, he stressed that the environment is made up of immediate settings, as well as the social and culture context such as home, school and workplace (Rogoff, 2003). The school where Kate’s parents have enrolled her in have given her a direct impact on her in her learning. This has provided her the opportunity to have the experience in exploring ice in the school setting. Kate may not have exposed to ice prior to her previous experiences, thus, this is something new to her. Her interactions with peers have added to her curiosity of exploring with ice. Kate was privileged to be given the opportunity to be in this setting as she entered the school. Interpersonal Lens Apart from her personal experiences in learning science and technology, Kate also gained knowledge from her peers. Kate observed her friend picking up the ice and mentioned, â€Å"Cold.† She experienced it herself and said the same thing too. Communication, cultural tools and other symbol systems bring in cultural and historical heritage and children learn to use these tools to interact and draw on the experiences of others (Robbins, 2007). In this observation, Kate acted to be the follower as she uses her friend as her model and modelled after her friend’s actions and words. Vygotsky’s theory believed that learning occurs first on interpersonal level, followed by socio-cultural engagement (Robbins, 2007). After the interaction with May, Kate has internalised and gained knowledge about ice and did her pouring of ice using different tools. Cultural-historical theory arising from Vygotsky theory also identifies that the activities which individual and peers are engaged are repetitively changing and developing in mutually incorporated ways (Robbins, Bartlett Jane, 2009). Children will be able to carry out such independent thinking and then transform these thinking to their own purpose ((Rogoff, 2003). Thus, after Kate’s interaction with May, Kate was able to internalise her own thinking and further work on her exploration. Personal Lens Through the personal lens of Kate, she has understood the use of using various tool provided to scoop the ice. She may have gained these experiences from her daily life. For example, she may have used the spoon to scoop rice from a bowl during lunch time, thus, in this case, she has used it to scoop rice. Another item which she may have experienced using prior to this scenario would be the cup. She might engage in water play previously and used the cup in pouring. Kate has developed a foundation of her cognitive skills. It is evident as she has moved from using a spoon to scoop, then to using a cup and lastly the bucket. She went through the processes of being innovative and new technical skills to transfer the ice into different containers. She has investigated how the tools worked and which worked best for her. Analysis of Observation 3 Community-Institutional Lens John is privileged to have large outdoor environment and outdoor materials for him to explore. Thus, the environment has provided John the opportunity to explore pushing a ball using a tricycle. He has learned a new way to travel the ball instead of using hands or legs. There was also sufficient time for John to explore. Instead of directing him of what he should do, opportunity was given for him to find out how he can use the tricycle to move the ball forward. As learning occurs within the context of play and on-going activities, and appropriate needs and wants, it is noted that children do need extended time for them to revisit and construct knowledge (Robbins et al., 2009). In this case, John was asked to participate in construction activities requested by the teacher like moving the ball with his tricycle. Some technology activities have an objective to meet and their attention is usually drawn to technology sensation and the physical artefacts within the school environment itself (Robbins et al., 2009). Interpersonal Lens The nature of this interactions relationship is between a children and adult. The shared understandings which appear to exist is that John agreed to bring the ball back by using his gestures and verbal communication. John’s interest in figuring to bring the ball using his tricycle is supported by me. From the support, he has built up his confidence by working on the ball travelled by the tricycle despite several failures. Children thinking skills can be rich and purposeful. It was evident that children are able to hold conflicting views at the same time (Robbins, 2009). John Based on Vygotsky’s ideas, he commented that learning happens initially before an individual engaged with another in an activity (Robbins, 2009). Vygotsky (as cited in Robbins, 2009 p.80) mentioned, â€Å"Through others we become ourselves.† Apart from interaction, we should also look into other languages and tools which make learning more meaningful. Personal Lens Through his personal lens of John, John has understood the ability to use his feet to propel and therefore he is able to understand the use of the tricycle and added on his thinking skills to move the ball. This has transformed his thinking skills to a higher order during his participation. John has also shows enthusiasm in moving the ball with the tricycle after a few attempts. The perseverance becomes obvious for the children when technology is incorporated of what children can do and is situated in a meaningful context (Fleer Jane, 2011). John’s curiosity in moving the tricycle has captured the relationship between the child and their environment which is reinforced in preschool by teachers (Fleer et al., 2014). Teaching Approaches The teaching approaches that have been observed in the three observations are reciprocal and discovery (Fleer et al., 2007). In observation one, reciprocal teaching approaches were observed. Cultural historical context has taken into considerations. A research done by Robbins (as cited in Fleer, Jane Hardy, 2007) displays that it is important to understand the context which the children develop their ideas; then gaining deeper and authentic view of the social nature of scientific learning rather agreeing to the statements made by children. In observation two and three, discovery approach was observed as I placed the ice, buckets, cups and spoon in the classroom environment to Kate to explore whereas John found a new way to transport the ball with the tricycle. In this learning context provided by the teacher, the children will decide which they would like to find out; through playing with these materials, they develop an experimental foundation (Fleer et al., 2007). I was view as a classroom resource from this discovery approach; the children are empowered to gain knowledge and skills from a range of resources (Fleer et al., 2007). Conclusion Through these observations, it is shown that children are surrounded in rich scientific and technological context, both at home and in school. They discover new things and ideas and it is important for teachers to bring in the opportunity to connect these scientific concepts together, making it relevant in their everyday lives, through the appropriate pedagogical approaches. Using Rogoff’s three lenses as an analytical tool, has shown that the lenses are interrelated; how the child has participated and changed, collaborated and interacted on contextual and cultural settings (Robbins, 2009). In addition, teachers who attempted to increase their knowledge in science would have more confidence in supporting children’s learning through stimulating interactions that nurture high-level thinking skills (Robbins, 2012). References Fleer, M., Jane, B. Hardy, T. (2007). Science for children: Developing a personal approach to teaching. (3rd ed). Frenchs Forest, N.S.W.: Pearson Education Australia. Fleer, M., Jane, B. (2011). Design and technology for children. (3rd ed). Frenchs Forest NSW: Pearson Australia. Fleer, M., Gomes, J., March, S. (2014). Science learning affordances in preschool environments. Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, Vol. 39, No. 1, Mar 2014: 38-48 Mackey, G. (2012). To know, to decide, to act: The young child’s right to participate in action for the environment. Environmental Education Research, 18(4), 473-484. Robbins, J. Jane, B. (July, 2006). Intergenerational learning: Grandparents supporting young children’s learning in science. Paper presented at the 37th Annual Conference of the Australasian Science. Education Research Association, Canberra, ACT. Robbins, J. (2007). Young children thinking and talking: Using sociocultural theory for multi-layered analysis. Research Online, 1(1), 45-65. Retrieved from ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002context=llrg Robbins, J. (2009). Analysing young children’s thinking about natural phenomena: A sociocultural/cultural historical perspective. Review of Science, Mathematics and ICT Education, 3(1), pp. 75-97. Robbins, J. (2012). Learning science in informal contexts: The home and community. In Campbell, C Jobling, W. (Eds) Science in Early Childhood (pp.94-112). Port Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. Robbins, J. Bartlett, J. Jane, B. (July, 2006). Children’s technological and scientific thinking in block play: A cultural-historical perspective. Paper presented at 40th Annual Conference of the Australasian Science Education Research Association, Deakin University, Geelong Australia. Rogoff, B. (2003). Development as transformation of participation in cultural activities. In the Cultural Nature of Human Development. In B. Rogoff, The cultural nature human development (pp. 37-62). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Appendices Observation 1 Date: 12 August 2014 Child’s Name: Ann Plants need water! Washing hands is very important as part of our health and hygiene. After outdoor play, I brought Ann to wash her hands at the sink. When she was about to wash her hands, she saw a watering can in the sink. It was actually Miss Jess who brought the watering cans out as she wanted to fill up with water for the toddlers to water the plants. Ann stood by the side observing Miss Jess’s actions. Miss Jess asked, â€Å"Would you like to water the plants too?† Ann nodded her head shyly as she took the watering can from Miss Jess. She turned on the tap and began filling it up with water. I stood aside and asked, â€Å"Why are you filling up with water?† She replied, â€Å"I water the plants.† Ann turned off the tap and walked towards the planters nearby. She began watering the plants. She then walked towards the plants near the school gate and began watering the leaves. I asked, â€Å"Why are you watering the leaves?† â€Å"They need water.† She replied, â€Å"They are thirsty.† She continued watering the plants. Observation 2 Date: 13 August 2014 Child’s Name: Kate Ice Cold Ice After snack, I brought in some ice for the two year old children to explore. With some buckets filled with ice, small plastic cups and spoons, the children began using the spoon to scoop the ice from the bucket and transferred to the plastic cups. While the children were focused scooping the ice, one of Kate’s friend accidentally dropped an ice. She then used her hands to pick up the ice and put it back into the cup. I asked her, â€Å"How do your hands feel?† â€Å"Cold!† she replied with closed to her body and pretended to shiver. Kate was observing her friend’s conversation when the incident happened. Kate then used a spoon to scoop ice from a bucket to a plastic cup. Once the plastic cup is full, she poured all the ice into another bucket. She also felt the ice with her hands and said, â€Å"Cold.† And put the ice back into the bucket. She also pretended to shiver after saying it. Instead of using a spoon, she then held the cup and scooped the ice from the bucket. I was amazed by the way she used the cup to scoop for more ice. I commented, â€Å"Wow Kate, you used the cup to scoop the ice!† Kate pointed to the cup, smiled and said, â€Å"Cup.† Few minutes passed, when I turn and looked at Kate, she was pouring the ice from one bucket to another bucket. This time round, I was astonished! She managed to find the fastest way to transfer the ice. Observation 3 Date: 4 August 2014 Child’s Name: John I moved the ball with my tricycle! Our school believed that the environment is the children’s third teacher. Thus, we have a large outdoor space for children to experience outdoor activities. The toddlers were having outdoor play in the morning. They were engaged in blowing bubbles, ball play and tricycle. While I was kicking balls with a group of children, one of the balls rolled under John tricycle. It seemed stuck. John was using his both feet to move the tricycle realized the ball went under his seat. He looked at me, waiting for me to say something. I asked him, â€Å"John, can you help to bring the ball back us?† So, he stood up and wanted to remove the ball from his tricycle but it seemed stuck. He went back on to his tricycle, bend down to attempt to get the ball but he still could not. With a few attempts, he realized that the ball moves along when the tricycle move! He used his both feet to propel and the ball moves forward. He was laughing, enjoying the moment as he moved along with his tricycle and ball. John transported the ball back to us with his tricycle. I was surprised by his actions. â€Å"Thank you John, you brought the ball back with your tricycle!† I said. â€Å"I like the way you used the tricycle to fetch it back, it was interesting!† I added â€Å"You are welcome!† John replied. Thereafter, John went to get a ball and began transporting the ball using the tricycle that he rode on. Loo Si Hui

The Effect of Different Antibiotics on Bacteria

The Effect of Different Antibiotics on Bacteria Antibiotics are medicines that kill bacteria. Bacteria can cause infections such as strep throat, ear infections, urinary tract infections, and sinus infections (sinusitis). There are many types of antibiotics. Each works a little differently and acts on different types of bacteria. Dont antibiotics cure everything? Antibiotics are powerful medicines, but they cannot cure everything. Antibiotics do not work against illnesses that are caused by a virus. They do not help illnesses such as: Common colds. Influenza (flu). Most cases of acute bronchitis. Most sore throats not caused by strep. Runny noses. These illnesses usually go away by themselves. If you take antibiotics when you do not need them, they may not work when you do need them. Each time you take antibiotics, you are more likely to have some bacteria that the medicine does not kill. Over time these bacteria change (mutate) and become harder to kill. The antibiotics that used to kill them no longer work. These bacteria are called antibiotic-resistant bacteria. These tougher bacteria can cause longer and more serious infections. In order to treat them you may need different, stronger antibiotics that cost more. A stronger antibiotic may have more side effects than the first medicine. Antibiotic-resistant bacteria also can spread to family members, children, and friends. Your community then will have a risk of getting an infection that is harder to cure and costs more to treat. Some antibiotics that doctors once prescribed to treat common infections no longer work. Taking antibiotics you do not need will not help you feel better, cure your illness, or keep others from being infected. On the other hand, take them when unnecessary may cause harmful side effects. Those side effects include: Nausea. Diarrhea. Stomach pain. When antibiotics kill the normal bacteria in your intestine and allow the C.difficilebacteria to grow, this causes diarrhea, fever, and belly cramps. In some rare cases, it can even cause death. This condition is known as Clostridium difficilecolitis or C. difficile colitis which is the swelling and irritation of the large intestine, or colon. Women may develop vaginal yeast infections from taking antibiotics. Rarely, antibiotics can cause a dangerous allergic reaction that requires emergency care. The right way to take antibiotic: Take it exactly as directed. Always take the exact amount that the label says to take. If the label says to take the medicine at a certain time, follow these directions. Take it for as long as prescribed. After the first few days of taking the medicine, you might feel better. However, it is important to keep taking the antibiotic as directed and usually until it is finish. Full prescription is always needed to get rid of those bacteria that are a bit stronger and able to survive the first few days of treatment. Bacteria that an antibiotic cannot kill (antibiotic-resistant bacteria) can develop if only part of an antibiotic prescription is being taken. Most importantly, leftover medicine must not be saved for the purpose of future use. Antibiotics are usually safe despites of all the side effects. Common side effects include nausea, diarrhea, and stomach pain. In women, antibiotics can lead to vaginal yeast infections. Some minor side effects are inevitable. In rare cases, antibiotics can cause a dangerous allergic reaction that requires emergency care. Antibiotics are among the most frequently prescribed medications in modern medicine. Antibiotics cure disease by killing or injuring bacteria. After the first antibiotic, penicillin which was accidentally been discovered from a mold culture, there are now over 100 different antibiotics available to cure minor discomforts as well as life-threatening infections.Although antibiotics are useful in a wide variety of infections, it is important to realize that antibiotics only treat bacterial infections. Antibiotics are useless against viral infections such as the common cold and fungal infections ringworm. Types of Antibiotics Although there are well over 100 antibiotics, the majority come from only a few types of drugs. These are the main classes of antibiotics. Penicillins such as penicillin andamoxicillin Cephalosporins such as cephalexin(Keflex) Macrolides such as erythromycin (E-Mycin), clarithromycin (Biaxin), andazithromycin (Zithromax) Fluoroquinolones such as ciprofloxacin(Cipro), levofloxacin (Levaquin), andofloxacin (Floxin) Sulfonamides such as co-trimoxazole (Bactrim) and trimethoprim (Proloprim) Tetracyclines such as tetracycline (Sumycin, Panmycin) Aminoglycosides such as gentamicin (Garamycin) and tobramycin (Tobrex) The use of right antibiotic is crucial as each antibiotic cures only certain types of infections but not all. Also, a person may have allergies that eliminate a class of antibiotic from consideration, such as a penicillin allergy which should not prescribe amoxicillin. Other factors may be considered when choosing an antibiotic. Medication cost, dosing schedule, and common side effects are often taken into account. Patterns of infection in your community may be considered too. In some cases, laboratories may help to decide which antibiotic to be used. Special techniques such as Gram stains may help narrow down which species of bacteria is causing infection. This is because certain bacterial species will take a stain while the others will not. Cultures may also be obtained. In this technique, a bacterial sample from infection is allowed to grow in a laboratory. The way bacteria grow or what they look like when they grow can help to identify the bacterial species. Cultures may also be tested to determine antibiotic sensitivities. A sensitivity list is the roster of antibiotics that kill a particular bacterial type. This list can be used to double check that you are taking the right antibiotic. Escherichia coli E. coli is a common type of bacteria that can get into food, like beef and vegetables. E. coli is short for the medical term Escherichia coli. The strange thing about these bacteria and lots of other bacteria is that theyre not always harmful to you. Theodor Escherich first described E. coli in 1885, as Bacterium coli commune, which he isolated from the feces of newborns. It was later renamed Escherichia coli, and for many years the bacterium was simply considered to be a commensal organism of the large intestine. It was not until 1935 that a strain of E. coli was shown to be the cause of an outbreak of diarrhea among infants. The GI tract of most warm-blooded animals is colonized by E. coli within hours or a few days after birth. The bacterium is ingested in foods or water or obtained directly from other individuals handling the infant. The human bowel is usually colonized within 40 hours of birth. E. coli can adhere to the mucus overlying the large intestine. Once established, an E. coli strain may persist for months or years. Resident strains shift over a long period (weeks to months), and more rapidly after enteric infection or antimicrobial chemotherapy that perturbs the normal flora. The entire DNA base sequence of the E. c oli genome has been known since 1997. E. coli normally lives inside your intestines, where it helps the body to break down and digest the food. Unfortunately, certain types of E. coli can get from the intestines into the blood. This is a rare illness, but it can cause a very serious infection. Someone who has E. coli infection may have these symptoms: bad stomach cramps and belly pain vomiting diarrhea, sometimes with blood in it One very bad strain of E. coli was found in fresh spinach in 2006 and some fast-food hamburgers in 1993. Beef can contain E. coli because the bacteria often infect cattle. It can be in meat that comes from cattle and its also in their poop, called manure. E. coli is a consistent inhabitant of the human intestinal tract, and it is the predominant facultative organism in the human GI tract; however, it makes up a very small proportion of the total bacterial content. The anaerobic Bacteroides species in the bowel outnumber E. coli by at least 20:1. However, the regular presence of E. coli in the human intestine and feces has led to tracking the bacterium in nature as an indicator of fecal pollution and water contamination. As such, it is taken to mean that, wherever E. coli is found, there may be fecal contamination by intestinal parasites of humans. Physiologically, E. coli is versatile and well-adapted to its characteristic habitats. It can grow in media with glucose as the only organic constituent. Wild-type E. coli has no growth factor requirements, and metabolically it can transform glucose into all of the macromolecular components that make up the cell. The bacterium can grow in the presence or absence of O2. Under anaerobic condit ions it will grow by means of fermentation, producing characteristic mixed acids and gas as end products. However, it can also grow by means of anaerobic respiration, since it is able to utilize NO3, NO2 as final electron acceptors for respiratory electron transport processes. In part, this adapts E. coli to its intestinal (anaerobic) and its extra intestinal (aerobic or anaerobic) habitats. E. coli can respond to environmental signals such as chemicals, pH, temperature, osmolarity. Therefore, in a number of very remarkable ways considering it is a unicellular organism. For example, it can sense the presence or absence of chemicals and gases in its environment and swim towards or away from them. It can stop swimming and grow fimbriae that will specifically attach it to a cell or surface receptor. In response to change in temperature and osmolarity, it can vary the pore diameter of its outer membrane to accommodate larger molecules (nutrients) or to exclude inhibitory substances. With its complex mechanisms for regulation of metabolism the bacterium can survey the chemical contents in its environment in advance of synthesizing any enzymes that metabolize these compounds. It does not wastefully produce enzymes for degradation of carbon sources unless they are available, and it does not produce enzymes for synthesis of metabolites if they are available as nutrients in the e nvironment. Figures 1.1 1.2: Escherichia coli Staphylococcus aureus Figure 1.3: Electron micrograph of Staphylococcus aureus The Staphylococci Staphylococci (staph) are Gram-positive spherical bacteria that occur in microscopic clusters resembling grapes. Bacteriological culture of the nose and skin of normal humans invariably yields staphylococci. In 1884, Rosenbach described the two pigmented colony types of staphylococci and proposed the appropriate nomenclature: Staphylococcus aureus (yellow) and Staphylococcus albus (white). The latter species is now named Staphylococcus epidermidis. Although more than 20 species of Staphylococcus are described in Bergeys Manual (2001), only Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis are significant in their interactions with humans. S. aureus colonizes mainly the nasal passages, but it may be found regularly in most other anatomical locales, including the skin, oral cavity and gastrointestinal tract. S epidermidis is an inhabitant of the skin. Taxonomically, the genus Staphylococcus is in the Bacterial family Staphylococcaceae, which includes three lesser known genera, Gamella, Macrococcus and Salinicoccus. The best-known of its nearby phylogenetic relatives are the members of the genus Bacillus in the family Bacillaceae, which is on the same level as the family Staphylococcaceae. The Listeriaceae are also a nearby family. Staphylococcus aureus forms a fairly large yellow colony on rich medium; S. epidermidis has a relatively small white colony. S. aureus is often hemolytic on blood agar; S. epidermidis is non hemolytic. Staphylococci are facultative anaerobes that grow by aerobic respiration or by fermentation that yields principally lactic acid. The bacteria are catalase-positive and oxidase-negative. S. aureus can grow at a temperature range of 15 to 45 degrees and at NaCl concentrations as high as 15 percent. Nearly all strains of S. aureus produce the enzyme coagulase: nearly all strains of S. epidermidis lack this enzyme. S. aureus should always be considered a potential pathogen; most strains of S. epidermidis are non-pathogenic and may even play a protective role in humans as normal flora. Staphylococcus epidermidis may be a pathogen in the hospital environment. Staphylococci are perfectly spherical cells about 1 micrometer in diameter. The staphylococci grow in clusters because the cells divide successively in three perpendicular planes with the sister cells remaining attached to one another following each successive division. Since the exact point of attachment of sister cells may not be within the divisional plane and the cells may change position slightly while remaining attached, the result is formation of an irregular cluster of cells. The shape and configuration of the Gram-positive cocci helps to distinguish staphylococci from streptococci. Streptococci are slightly oblong cells that usually grow in chains because they divide in one plane only, similar to a bacillus. Without a microscope, the catalase test is important in distinguishing streptococci (catalase-negative) from staphylococci, which are vigorous catalase-producers. The test is performed by adding 3% hydrogen peroxide to a colony on an agar plate or slant. Catalase-positive cultures produce O2 and bubble at once. The test should not be done on blood agar because blood itself contains catalase. Figure 1.4: Gram stain of Staphylococcus aureus in pustular exudate Figure 1.5: Staphylococcus aureus Problem statement: Which antibiotic is most effective on bacteria? Hypothesis: Different antibiotics have different effect on bacteria. Ampicillin is the most effective antibiotic against Escherichia Coli and Staphylococcus aureus compared to other antibiotics. Variables: Manipulated Variable: Types of antibiotics and types of bacteria. Responding Variable: The diameter of clear zone around the paper discs. Fixed Variable: Surrounding temperature, humidity, light intensity, size of paper discs. Apparatus: Agar plate, Bunsen burner, marker pen, autoclaved forceps. Materials: Bacteria E. coli, bacteria S. aureus, bench spray of disinfectant, 1% Virkon, soap and dettol, paper towels, antibiotic- impregnated paper disc, adhesive tape. Procedure: Hands are washed with dettol handwash. Disinfectant spray is sprayed thoroughly to the working area. Paper towels are then used to wipe the working area. Two sterile Petri dishes are labeled correctly. One is filled with the bacteria S. aureus and another one with E. coli. The label is pasted at the side of the Petri dishes. The apparatus needed: bottle containing sterile nutrient agar, micropipette with sterile tips, Bunsen burner, bottle containing bacteria cultures and sterile Petri dishes labeled correctly. 200ml of E. coli bacteria culture is pipetted into a sterile Petri dish beside a burning Bunsen burner. Molten agar is poured into the Petri dish until the bottom of the Petri dish is covered by the agar. The Petri dish is then covered and gently pushed back and forth and in all four directions to mix the bacteria well with the agar. The agar is then allowed to set. Steps 4 to7 are repeated for S. aureus. The 2 Petri dishes containing the agar lawn are allowed to set. One paper disc is placed in a solution of antibiotics named Ampicillin using sterile forceps. The paper disc is then soaked into Petri dish containing the agar. Steps 10- 11 are repeated for antibiotics Tetracyclin, Carbenicillin, and sterilized distilled water. The Petri dish is closed and the bottom of the Petri dish is labeled to identify the position of each paper disc. The agar plates are then left in 30.0 0C incubator for 24 hours. Hands are washed thoroughly again after working with the bacteria culture. After 24 hours, the agar plates are observed with the Petri dishes closed. The diameter of the clear region around the paper discs are measured and recorded. The results are recorded in a table Precautions: The bacteria must be pipetted into the agar before the agar is set so that the bacteria can mix well with it. During observation, the lid of the Petri dishes must not be lifted up as the bacteria are harmful to our healths. After working with the bacteria culture, hands must be washed with disinfectant in order to avoid any infections. Result: Antibiotics Diameter of the clear zone, cm Escherichia coli Staphylococcus aureus Ampicillin 3.2 3.0 Tetracycline 2.3 2.7 Carbenicillin 1.3 2.8 Distilled water 0.5 0.5 Discussions: Analysis of data From the result, it is found that the largest inhibition zone or clear region is formed around the paper disc soaked in Ampicillin for E. coli bacteria lawn, followed closely by Tetracyclin and Carbenicillin. Ampicillins paper disc caused the largest area of inhibition zone in E. coli. This showed that Ampicillin is most effective in inhibiting the growth of the E. coli. Meanwhile, Carbenicillins paper disc which caused the smallest area of inhibition zone in E. coli showed that it is the weakest antibiotic against E. coli. Similarly, Ampicillin is also the most effective antibiotic against bacteria Staphylococcus aureus as the area of inhibition zone around the paper disc soaked with Ampicillin solution is the greatest, which has a diameter of 3.0 cm. Followed by that is the antibiotic Carbenicillin and the least effective antibiotic is Tetracyclin which has a slightly smaller diameter of clear zone than Cabenicillin, which is 2.7cm. Therefore, it can be concluded that Ampicillin is the most effective antibiotic against both type of bacteria and being the broad spectrum antibiotic while the effectiveness of Tetracyclin and Carbenicillin towards both bacteria varied. This showed that different antibiotic has different effect on different bacteria as well. The inhibition zones are all circular. If it is not circular, it is sensible that the diameter should be measured by using two points which are furthest from each other within the clear region. The diameter of the inhibition zones is affected by the strength of antimicrobial properties of the antibiotics towards different bacteria. It is important not to always choose the antibiotic with the largest inhibition zone to treat the patients as some other factors should be considered as well such as the side effect caused by the antibiotics, the conditions of the patients and the risk of that particular antibiotics. Control In this experiment, the control used is the sterilized distilled water. Paper discs soaked in sterilized distilled water are also put in two of the Petri dishes. This is to show that the sterilized distilled water has no effect on the bacteria. This enables us to compare the results for paper discs with the antibiotics and those with the distilled water to show that the formation of the inhibition zone or the clear region is due to the antibiotics but not because of the presence of water. In this case, clear region cannot be seen around the paper disc soaked in sterilized distilled water in both Petri dishes. Therefore, the presence of clear region around other paper discs must be due to the antimicrobial property of the antibiotics. Variables Three different antibiotics are used in this experiment to manipulate the types of antibiotics and to compare the effectiveness of each antibiotic to inhibit the growth of the bacteria. The antibiotics used are Tetracycline, Carbenicillin and Ampicillin. Two different types of bacteria, E. coli and S. aureus are manipulated by putting them in different Petri dishes with the agar medium. This enables us to identify the varying antimicrobial properties of the same antibiotics on different types of bacteria. The responding variable in this experiment is the diameter of the clear region around the paper discs after 24 hours. The greater the diameter of the clear zone around the paper discs, that means the more effective the antibiotic inhibiting the growth of the bacteria. The diameter of the clear zone can be measured from one point of the circular clear region to another point through the centre point by using a ruler. The amount of different bacteria cultures used must be the same by pipetting equal amount of the two bacteria, which is 200 ml into the agar medium. The temperature, humidity and light intensity must also be kept constant throughout the experiment. All these factors may affect the rate of growth of the bacteria. This can be done by placing the two agar plates into an incubator at 30 0 C. The size of the paper discs should also be kept constant. Paper discs which are larger will absorb more antibiotics and may lead to a greater diameter of clear zone compared to the smaller paper discs in the same bacteria culture. This is done by preparing the paper discs using the same puncher to ensure all the paper discs are of the same size. Justification of apparatus and materials In this experiment, the antibiotics used are Tetracycline, Streptomycin and Carbenicillin solutions. These antibiotics are more common antibiotics which are more easily available. The antibiotics have already been prepared in solutions form. This enables the paper discs to be soaked in the solutions directly and easier. The bacteria used are S. aureus and E. coli, they are practically easier to be grown and culture in agar plates. However, these two bacteria may be harmful to our health, therefore the lids of the agar plates are not allowed to be opened during observation. This is to keep us from getting any infections from these bacteria. Bunsen burner is used in this experiment to minimize the contamination of the experimental sets while preparing them. For example, the forceps are being flamed before being used to pick up the paper discs soaked in the antibiotics solutions. Micropipette is used to transfer the 200 ml bacteria into the agar medium. The used of micropipette with sterile tips further improved the accuracy of the result. Validity and reliability of the results According to the result from another group, Ampicillin is the most effective antibiotic towards only E. coli bacteria. Cabernicillin is most effective towards S. aerues and this is different from the result of my group. This may properly cause by contamination which affect the accuracy of the result. However, for the bacteria E. coli, the diameter of clear zone caused by the paper disc soaked in Cabernicillin is 1.3 cm for my group while the result of another group showed no clear zone around it. Therefore, it can be concluded that Carbenicillin is the least effective antibiotics towards E. coli for two groups. Besides, in order to increase the reliability of the experiment, the variables are controlled carefully. The constant variables are kept constant while only manipulating the variables that are being studied. Sources of errors One possible source of errors may be the contamination of the agar medium. This occurred when saliva is accidentally being transferred to the agar during preparation. Another possible source of error could be the purity of the antibiotics used. Some of the antibiotics solutions may be contaminated by some impurities which could decrease their antibacterial properties. Also, human error can take place especially when measuring the diameter of the clear zones. Conclusion: The hypothesis is accepted. Different antibiotics have different effect on bacteria. Ampicillin is the most effective antibiotic against Escherichia Coli and Staphylococcus aureus compared to other antibiotics. Antibiotics are medicines that kill bacteria. Bacteria can cause infections such as strep throat, ear infections, urinary tract infections, and sinus infections (sinusitis). There are many types of antibiotics. Each works a little differently and acts on different types of bacteria. Dont antibiotics cure everything? Antibiotics are powerful medicines, but they cannot cure everything. Antibiotics do not work against illnesses that are caused by a virus. They do not help illnesses such as: Common colds. Influenza (flu). Most cases of acute bronchitis. Most sore throats not caused by strep. Runny noses. These illnesses usually go away by themselves. If you take antibiotics when you do not need them, they may not work when you do need them. Each time you take antibiotics, you are more likely to have some bacteria that the medicine does not kill. Over time these bacteria change (mutate) and become harder to kill. The antibiotics that used to kill them no longer work. These bacteria are called antibiotic-resistant bacteria. These tougher bacteria can cause longer and more serious infections. In order to treat them you may need different, stronger antibiotics that cost more. A stronger antibiotic may have more side effects than the first medicine. Antibiotic-resistant bacteria also can spread to family members, children, and friends. Your community then will have a risk of getting an infection that is harder to cure and costs more to treat. Some antibiotics that doctors once prescribed to treat common infections no longer work. Taking antibiotics you do not need will not help you feel better, cure your illness, or keep others from being infected. On the other hand, take them when unnecessary may cause harmful side effects. Those side effects include: Nausea. Diarrhea. Stomach pain. When antibiotics kill the normal bacteria in your intestine and allow the C.difficilebacteria to grow, this causes diarrhea, fever, and belly cramps. In some rare cases, it can even cause death. This condition is known as Clostridium difficilecolitis or C. difficile colitis which is the swelling and irritation of the large intestine, or colon. Women may develop vaginal yeast infections from taking antibiotics. Rarely, antibiotics can cause a dangerous allergic reaction that requires emergency care. The right way to take antibiotic: Take it exactly as directed. Always take the exact amount that the label says to take. If the label says to take the medicine at a certain time, follow these directions. Take it for as long as prescribed. After the first few days of taking the medicine, you might feel better. However, it is important to keep taking the antibiotic as directed and usually until it is finish. Full prescription is always needed to get rid of those bacteria that are a bit stronger and able to survive the first few days of treatment. Bacteria that an antibiotic cannot kill (antibiotic-resistant bacteria) can develop if only part of an antibiotic prescription is being taken. Most importantly, leftover medicine must not be saved for the purpose of future use. Antibiotics are usually safe despites of all the side effects. Common side effects include nausea, diarrhea, and stomach pain. In women, antibiotics can lead to vaginal yeast infections. Some minor side effects are inevitable. In rare cases, antibiotics can cause a dangerous allergic reaction that requires emergency care. Antibiotics are among the most frequently prescribed medications in modern medicine. Antibiotics cure disease by killing or injuring bacteria. After the first antibiotic, penicillin which was accidentally been discovered from a mold culture, there are now over 100 different antibiotics available to cure minor discomforts as well as life-threatening infections.Although antibiotics are useful in a wide variety of infections, it is important to realize that antibiotics only treat bacterial infections. Antibiotics are useless against viral infections such as the common cold and fungal infections ringworm. Types of Antibiotics Although there are well over 100 antibiotics, the majority come from only a few types of drugs. These are the main classes of antibiotics. Penicillins such as penicillin andamoxicillin Cephalosporins such as cephalexin(Keflex) Macrolides such as erythromycin (E-Mycin), clarithromycin (Biaxin), andazithromycin (Zithromax) Fluoroquinolones such as ciprofloxacin(Cipro), levofloxacin (Levaquin), andofloxacin (Floxin) Sulfonamides such as co-trimoxazole (Bactrim) and trimethoprim (Proloprim) Tetracyclines such as tetracycline (Sumycin, Panmycin) Aminoglycosides such as gentamicin (Garamycin) and tobramycin (Tobrex) The use of right antibiotic is crucial as each antibiotic cures only certain types of infections but not all. Also, a person may have allergies that eliminate a class of antibiotic from consideration, such as a penicillin allergy which should not prescribe amoxicillin. Other factors may be considered when choosing an antibiotic. Medication cost, dosing schedule, and common side effects are often taken into account. Patterns of infection in your community may be considered too. In some cases, laboratories may help to decide which antibiotic to be used. Special techniques such as Gram stains may help narrow down which species of bacteria is causing infection. This is because certain bacterial species will take a stain while the others will not. Cultures may also be obtained. In this technique, a bacterial sample from infection is allowed to grow in a laboratory. The way bacteria grow or what they look like when they grow can help to identify the bacterial species. Cultures may also be tested to determine antibiotic sensitivities. A sensitivity list is the roster of antibiotics that kill a particular bacterial type. This list can be used to double check that you are taking the right antibiotic. Escherichia coli E. coli is a common type of bacteria that can get into food, like beef and vegetables. E. coli is short for the medical term Escherichia coli. The strange thing about these bacteria and lots of other bacteria is that theyre not always harmful to you. Theodor Escherich first described E. coli in 1885, as Bacterium coli commune, which he isolated from the feces of newborns. It was later renamed Escherichia coli, and for many years the bacterium was simply considered to be a commensal organism of the large intestine. It was not until 1935 that a strain of E. coli was shown to be the cause of an outbreak of diarrhea among infants. The GI tract of most warm-blooded animals is colonized by E. coli within hours or a few days after birth. The bacterium is ingested in foods or water or obtained directly from other individuals handling the infant. The human bowel is usually colonized within 40 hours of birth. E. coli can adhere to the mucus overlying the large intestine. Once established, an E. coli strain may persist for months or years. Resident strains shift over a long period (weeks to months), and more rapidly after enteric infection or antimicrobial chemotherapy that perturbs the normal flora. The entire DNA base sequence of the E. c oli genome has been known since 1997. E. coli normally lives inside your intestines, where it helps the body to break down and digest the food. Unfortunately, certain types of E. coli can get from the intestine